How to Draw a Lewis Structure

How to Draw a Lewis Structure A Lewis structure is a graphic representation of the electron distribution around atoms. The reason for learning to draw Lewis structures is to predict the number and type of bonds that may be formed around an atom. A Lewis structure also helps to make a prediction about the geometry of a molecule. Chemistry students are often confused by the models, but drawing Lewis structures can be a straightforward process if the proper steps are followed. Be aware there are several different strategies for constructing Lewis structures. These instructions outline the Kelter strategy to draw Lewis structures for molecules. Step 1: Find the Total Number of Valence Electrons In this step, add up the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the molecule. Step 2: Find the Number of ElectronsNeeded to Make the Atoms "Happy" An atom is considered happy if the atoms outer electron shell is filled. Elements up to period four on the periodic table need eight electrons to fill their outer electron shell. This property is often known as the octet rule. Step 3: Determine the number of bonds in the molecule Covalent bonds are formed when one electron from each atom forms an electron pair. Step 2 tells how many electrons are needed and Step 1 is how many electrons you have. Subtracting the number in Step 1 from the number in Step 2 gives you the number of electrons needed to complete the octets. Each bond formed requires two electrons, so the number of bonds is half the number of electrons needed, or: (Step 2 - Step 1)/2 Step 4: Choose a Central Atom The central atom of a molecule is usually the least electronegative atom or the atom with the highest valence. To find electronegativity, either rely on periodic table trends or else consult a table that lists electronegativity values. Electronegativity decreases moving down a group on the periodic table and tends to increase moving from left to right across a period. Hydrogen and halogen atoms tend to appear on the outside of the molecule and are rarely the central atom. Step 5: Draw a Skeletal Structure Connect the atoms to the central atom with a straight line representing a bond between the two atoms. The central atom can have up to four other atoms connected to it. Step 6: Place Electrons Around Outside Atoms Complete the octets around each of the outer atoms. If there are not enough electrons to complete the octets, the skeletal structure from step 5 is incorrect. Try a different arrangement. Initially, this may require some trial an error. As you gain experience, it will become easier to predict skeletal structures. Step 7: Place Remaining Electrons Around the Central Atom Complete the octet for the central atom with the remaining electrons. If there are any bonds left over from Step 3, create double bonds with lone pairs on outside atoms. A double bond is represented by two solid lines drawn between a pair of atoms. If there are more than eight electrons on the central atom and the atom is not one of the exceptions to the octet rule, the number of valence atoms in Step 1 may have been counted incorrectly. This will complete the Lewis dot structure for the molecule. Lewis Structures vs Real Molecules While Lewis structures are useful, especially when youre learning about valence, oxidation states, and bonding, there are many exceptions to the rules in the real world. Atoms seek to fill or half-fill their valence electron shell. However, atoms can and do form molecules that are not ideally stable. In some cases, the central atom can form more than other atoms connected to it. Also, the number of valence electrons can exceed 8, especially for higher atomic numbers. Lewis structures are helpful for light elements but less useful for transition metals, including lanthanides and actinides. Students are cautioned to remember Lewis structures are a valuable tool for learning about and predicting the behavior of atoms in molecules, but they are imperfect representations of real electron activity.

Policing essays

Policing essays The current treat of terrorism and other dangers to our country is a big concern. September 11 was a big wakeup call to our country as far as security reasons are concern. To me, I feel there had to be a big misunderstanding between our security officials and the president. The threats against our country are huge, but I dont think that combining all police agencies into one national organization would be good for our society. The way our policing is set up today, is perfect. Combining city, state, and federal officials together, will cause major problems and a lot of change to our criminal justice system. All police officials follow different state laws and statutes. Some states deal with certain issues differently than other states such as the death penalty and gun laws. Combining police forces will also affect the way officers do their jobs, because they might be use to a law being a certain way but when they realize things have changed, if effects how they perform. Many things will also be affected, like jurisdiction, training, educating new recruits, and corruption. Many state and federal agencies educate and train officials different. Some agencies like the F.B.I. and the D.E.A. train in secluded areas of the country, and many state and local city policing all train in one area. Training all these agencies in one big organization would cause a lot of problems because the strategies and the knowledge between these agencies are totally different and this would become stressful to a lot of people. A lot of our policing today are setup around jurisdictions and state restrictions. If policing was combined, then there would be no jurisdictions and all policing would respond to the same crime. As it is to day, officers can only respond to calls in their jurisdictions and no where else. There are 21 separate law enforcement agencies in our country and each agency deal with different parts of law enforcement in our society. Ed...

The purpose of this paper is to analyze a significant incident from Essay

The purpose of this paper is to analyze a significant incident from your own experience in which help was needed by another pers - Essay Example Although, adapting to the environment and compromising is sometimes the only way to survive in these times, stronger and more successful are those men who stick to their principles and never deviate no matter what. It is to such people that our world still has a little bit of dignity and humanity left. Many like instances have occurred in my life, forcing me to choose and make important decisions that firmed the path of my life forward and laid foundation of my relationships with people involved. I will quote here one such instance and describe the event and its consequences in detail. I was thirteen years old at that time. Recently, reunited with an old friend who went to US for few years and returned that summer, I used to spend a lot of time playing and chatting with her. We had been together since we both were two years old; added to the fact that we were neighbors; nothing that we did not share and knew about each other. Be it clothes, toys, books, stationary or lunch, we never kept anything to ourselves. Same school, same classes, same locality, we were inseparables. Although her recent visit to US that took a little longer than expected, was a frustrating time for me since I was not a crowd-loving person, and had very few close friends, it did not prove successful in ruining our friendship. When she returned, we reunited with double energy, like the two ends of rubber bands, which doubles their momentum once they are suspended from their farthest ends. Revisiting old memories and catching up on new ones became our favorite pastime. Nevertheless, as they say, the only constant thing on this earth is change (Rupert, 1). Like all good things, this had to end too. Whilst catching up on each other’s recent past stories, I found out that she was dating a boy in our neighborhood ever since she went to US. Amazed and shocked by her recent updates, I decided to keep it to myself only since her reputation was dear to me. On hearing more, I found out that no one in her family knew about the boy, which troubled me a little. Now, it is important to understand why it was a big deal. Since our community is very conservative about inter-gender relationships, young teenagers seen dating or even talking together were scandalized and reprimanded. Therefore, my first reaction was that of fear and anxiety since I did not want her to get into any trouble. Nevertheless, the daring and spoiled kid she had always been, she did not pay attention to me. Now, I turn to the climax where the incident occurred. So one fine day, I was at home, alone since it was afternoon, and my mother had gone to shop for groceries. I hear a doorbell and I saw my friend in the peephole, surprised and delighted at the same time. When I opened it, she greeted me with over excitement and it was then when I sensed something weird. I asked her to come inside to which she declined. Then, she stated her purpose, which caught me by utter despair and shock. She announced that she was going to see her boyfriend at his place and wanted me, her best friend, to accompany her. Now this was a real tricky situation for a recently turned teenager who had a picture-perfect life with no such deviant experiences. I looked at her in complete disbelief to which she gave an incredibly surprising normal reaction. I tried to talk her out of it but she would not listen. She kept on arguing and convincing me to agree to her crazy

International Business Practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

International Business Practices - Essay Example The penetration of the company into the global market is facilitated by its market entry strategy which is licensing. When deciding to expand its market, Coca-cola sells a domestic firm the right to use the company's manufacturing process, trademark patent, trade secret, and other item of value for a fee or royalty. The organizational structure of Coca-cola is highly decentralized. The company does this by "cutting half of the staff at its Atlanta headquarters and moving the regional chieftains closer to their local market" (Organizational Structure 2003). This management structure is observed throughout the firm's international operation. In India, the managers have been given the authority to implement decision within their scope of responsibility. This type of organizational structure supports the primary market entry strategy of Coca-cola as discussed above. Since licensing involves little contact and interference with the licensee, the decentralized organizational structure is very conducive to Coca-cola. Dell, Inc. is one of the largest personal computer manufacturers in the world. The company was able establish in the global IT industry because of its very efficient market entry strategy. In capturing foreign markets, Dell directly invest in a country by developing foreign-based assembly or manufacturing facility.

College Degree Essay Example for Free

College Degree Essay The quest for college degree has brought us to here HCC, because there was no real fulfillment in our various jobs. The benefits from having a college education are manifold and range from jobs satisfaction, higher earning potential, and healthier life style choices. With the advances in technology, many of todays jobs now require more than a high school education or trade skills. Success in the workforce is increasingly defined by the ability to think critically, manipulate a computer, and to work collaboratively in a teaming environment. Todays college education develops these abilities, providing individuals with invaluable business and personal skills and knowledge, as well as opening the door to better career opportunities and increased earning power. Having a college degree is linked to higher pay. People with a higher level of education are more satisfied in their jobs than people who only have a high school diploma. For example, in 2012 the median of earnings for young adults with a bachelors degree was $46,900, while the median was $22,900 for those without a high school credential and $30,000 for those with a high school credential. In other words, young adults with a bachelors degree earned more than twice as much as those without a high school credential (105 percent more) and 57 percent more than young adult high school completers. (National Center for Education Statistics website). One of the biggest arguments against a college education is not being able to  go work when you turn eighteen. Many people believe that this will cause them to fall behind and not be able save up enough money. A college education will let you skip the line and start working with better jobs, in better places, with better conditions, and on top of that, the unemployment rates for high school graduates have increased to 8.1% in the last year (Value of a Degree). The bottom line is that better jobs come from a better education. College education will help in making good choice and have a healthier life style. Apparently those with a college education are more likely to live healthier lifestyles, with fewer incidences of smoking and obesity. The gap between smoking rates of those with high school diplomas and those with four-year degrees has risen from 2 percentage points in 1962 to 17 points in 2012. College-educated adults of all ages, and their children, are also less likely to be obese. In addition, mothers with higher levels of education spend more time with their children, regardless of whether they are employed or not (Top Universities). Also in the other hand, according to Malcom X Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today. The Luck of education is a serious problem today. Some effects include illiteracy and increased drop rate, this is also leads to have a trouble finding work. It is difficult to see the exact value of your education in the beginning. However, finishing high school is an asset that everyone with the opportunity should take full advantage of. Just finishing high school opens up some doors, but not many. On the contrary, not going to school can result in higher unemployment and therefore a means for extra burden on the society. You can see from the chart that there is a dramatic difference between what a person will be paid with a diploma and as a college graduate. According to the chart a college graduate can bring home nearly fifty-percent more than a person with a high school diploma. Higher education opens up opportunities for people. It gives student the experience and the confidence that they will be able to use in many life situations. Attending college gives students opportunities to express themselves and to learn about other people and their ideas Although college isnt for everyone, everyone should at least give it a try. By going to college you learn to become independent, you go into the race for bigger, safer, better jobs, and you make more money on the other side. If you are given the opportunity to go to college, you should take advantage of it. You might even find out that you like it. The college experience is both academic and practical. College gives us a great opportunity to grow intellectually and gives us a chance to mature.

Romanticism :: Romantic Period Essays

Romanticism It was a reaction against the Enlightenment and yet akin in that they both assumed life was designed for human happiness. However the Enlightenment placed reason at the center of human achievement. Romanticismm distrusted the human intellect and placed its value on the emotions and intuitive qualities. The natural and spontaneous was deemed good. The highest truths would be derived from the instantaneous of the individual. It gloried in the unlimited potential of the individual. There was an overall feeling of optimism and belief of a utopia. Romanticism reinforced the emotionalism of the period and its philosophies influenced the Transcendental movement. Romanticism began in the early 19th century and radically changed the way people perceived themselves and the state of nature around them. Unlike Classicism, which stood for order and established the foundation for architecture, literature, painting and music, Romanticism allowed people to get away from the constricted, rational views of life and concentrate on an emotional and sentimental side of humanity. This not only influenced political doctrines and ideology, but was also a sharp contrast from ideas and harmony featured during the Enlightenment. The Romantic era grew alongside the Enlightenment, but concentrated on human diversity and looking at life in a new way. It was the combination of modern Science and Classicism that gave birth to Romanticism and introduced a new outlook on life that embraced emotion before rationality. . Romanticism began to show the people that the Enlightenment had overstayed its welcome by leading the people to a future that offered a vision of mankind as being part of a group rather than an individual. G. W. F. Hegel, a German philosopher, rejected the rational philosophy of the 18th century because he believed in "Idealism". This involved looking at life in terms of the importance of ideas, not thought the narrow tunnel of materialism and wealth. By advocating Idealism, Hegel concluded that mankind could be led by his spirit, his soul, rather than the establishment or the status quo. Although Romanticism was perhaps conservative in nature, every participant of this swift and silent movement could relish in his own free and glorious vision of nature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Romanticism was not a political movement or a reformist package offered by a group of dissidents; Romanticism was a time when mankind could restructure his outlook on life so that he was able to reach new heights of

Religious Revival of the 1950s Essay

After Americans endured two decades of continuous depression, war and crisis through the 1930’s and 40’s, they sought a return to normalcy and longed to focus on the more private details of existence. Instead of national objectives, the public concentrated on family, home, and career, while becoming increasingly absorbed in religion. As the 1950’s saw America in a state of national exhaustion, religion-in-general experienced a surge in popularity. Many critical views were silenced or ignored as people became more accepting of a wide variety of beliefs. While the revival was unexpected and unstructured, several events fueled the movement. World War II left the country weary and drained. During the four seemingly-endless years of conflict, almost all churches had rallied behind the war effort. Post-war America a burst in prosperity, and with this support, churches expanded. Church attendance soared while their purpose and goals shifted. As all denominations gained a more powerful voice, they used it to increase their role in society. In 1950, several of the oldest Protestant denominations formed the National Council of Churches in order to improve relations with the government, encourage interchurch connections, and promote projects such as Bible translation.1 This organization also helped to do away with the harsh attitudes and antagonism aimed at Catholicism after the war. Toleration and acceptance seemed to be the key to deepened communication between both church and state as well and Protestants and Catholics. Following World War II, an era known as the Cold War shook American faith in the possibility of a peaceful nation. A war with the Soviet Union looming overhead, the threat of a communist takeover, and the potential for nuclear disaster sent Americans rushing to churches in part to find a sense of stability and security. Survey data shows that Church attendance reached an all-time high 49% of the American population in the mid-1950’s2 while nearly 96% claimed ties to some religious affiliation or another.3 Religion helped them cope with the uncertainty of having to live one of two opposing ways of life; a poverty-stricken, war torn country, or a thriving, peaceful nation  with an economy to support their growing families. Beneath the surface of mainstream optimism due to the booming economy, America’s crises with other countries instilled a sense of urgency concerning salvation. Moral values became somewhat self-indulgent, and self-absorption became characteristic of the religious movement, explaining in part the lack of conflict due to varying beliefs. While foreign affairs helped to shape religion in the 1950’s, it was perhaps the more informal networks that anchored public interest and in turn became more influential. A small organization called the National Association of Evangelicals, founded in 1942, united several theological groups in an effort to spread the message of the gospels. They promoted such campaigns as that of Billy Graham, perhaps the most popular evangelist in American history. Graham both warned the nation of the peril they faced due to communism and failing American foreign policy, while also providing them an escape through salvation in Jesus Christ. His combination of religion and public concern set Protestants to action in the effort to â€Å"save† America. His rallies attracted crowds upwards of a half million in the mid-1950’s.4 Another man offered a much more relaxed message concerning one’s role in society in relationship to religion. Norman Vincent Peale, a minister from the Reformed Church of America who pastored a church in New York City, preached to large crowds using â€Å"psychological, therapeutic, and scriptural elements.†5 Peale encouraged people to practice their faith and visualize how they wanted to live their lives in order to achieve their goals. This approach to religion caused many to call him â€Å"the rich man’s Billy Graham.†6 He wrote the book The Power of Positive Thinking, in 1952. â€Å"Positive thinking† eased the minds of Americans who remained uncertain about war with the Soviet Union and the permanence of economic expansion in the states. Catherine Wood Marshall also wrote a book offering realistic insight and moral inspiration. Women were contributing more directly to public life in  the 1950’s, and when her husband, minister Peter Marshall, died, she gathered his journals and sermons to publish A Man Called Peter. Not only were women writing religious books, but Post-war America saw women entering the ministry. Women had made up the majority of members in church congregations for centuries, but few denominations had recognized them as leaders before the 50’s. Conservative churches limited leadership to Bible studies and social programs, but many major denominations joined the Quakers and Pentecostals in ordaining them as ministers. With an endless reserve of new students and a thriving economy to fall back on, theological schools flourished. Seminaries and other Bible-based schools saw record enrollment. New faculty was added and new areas of study were introduced into the curriculum. Most of these schools became part of the evangelical enterprise, with traveling ministers or radio broadcasts, like those of the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago. These schools sought to guide the church leaders of the future while also creating a positive public image for evangelism and religious education. With these new advancements in the Protestant and Catholic churches, also came the growth of other religions. A network called the â€Å"Beat Movement† connected young writers who demonstrated a care-free, often reckless approach to both literature and religion. They joined small religious communities called ashrams, where Eastern religions, including Hinduism, Daoism, and Zen Buddhism were explored. Meditation and yoga were widely practiced. Like other groups of their time, they used their religious beliefs as a social stance. Their opposition to government policy and their desire to separate themselves from mainstream social activity was somewhat evident in their religious preferences. These movements and individuals of the 1950’s have all altered the America in which we live today. One of the most obvious changes that is so often overlooked was the adjustment of the Pledge of Allegiance. In 1954, following a crusade led by the Knights of Columbus,(a Catholic mens’ society), Congress added the words â€Å"under God.† Their desire was for the  pledge to serve both as a patriotic oath and a public prayer.7 Politicians, however, argue to this day about the constitutionality of endorsing religion in the nation’s pledge. Many of these decisions were made before there was substantial concern surrounding the relationship between church and state, and how much each side should be involved in the other. At the same time in Washington, after President Eisenhower was elected, the prayer room and the prayer breakfast were established in the Capitol building. Then in 1955, with the support of the president, Congress added the words â€Å"In God We Trust† to all paper currency. One year later, the same phrase replaced â€Å"E Pluribus Unum† as the nations official motto. Legislators even began to submit Constitutional amendments that ordered Americans to obey â€Å"the authority and law of Jesus Christ.† The government directly fueled the revival in the 1950’s, and the American public fell deeper and deeper into their own interests all the while believing â€Å"what is good for one’s own private interest is good for all,†8 as was mentioned to the country by General Motors’ Charles E. Wilson. National needs began to fall by the wayside as personal improvement took over top priority in the American household. Still, spiritual rebirth was the topic of concern in the minds of the American people. Southern revivalism got a boost with the beginning of the Civil Rights movement. Thousands of black and white Americans alike took part in the movement for justice. The â€Å"Southern Christian Leadership Conference,† attended by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., sought to end racial segregation and was fueled by Christian ideals rather than political agenda. Dr. King, a Southern Baptist minister, lead the non-violent undertaking, which lead to a civil rights movement that extended well into the 60’s and 70’s. He urged Americans to â€Å"stand up for justice, stand up for truth.†9 Americans felt a sense of moral responsibility in the 1950’s. The revival of the decade, if nothing else, proved there was a civil religion in the nation. Most Americans at the time put faith in four basic points. First, the existence of God; second, a life to come; third, they would be rewarded  for the good and punished for their sinful actions; and lastly, that there was no room for religious intolerance if there was to be peace in the nation.10 A change in the religious tone of the country was perhaps most evident in Washington. Even the government and its leaders recognized a â€Å"higher law,† and evidence of their dedication to the fusion of religious principles and democratic ideals is evident still today. They believed that a nation with strong values and beliefs would lead to a responsible social system, a strong sense of patriotism and common ideals around which to base strong communities. Such beliefs created an atmosphere that encouraged religious pluralism and as a result the 1950’s saw some of the most rapid spiritual growth in American history to date.